Origin and Growth of Town

Origin of Towns: Topographical Features

If a survey is carried out regarding the origin of some of the important existing towns and cities of the world, it can be easily established that any town or city has originated because of certain specific cause. The origin of towns can be broadly classified into two categories, namely, topographical and functional. The topographical features of origin of towns are as follows.

1. Conditions favorable for industrial units
2. Hilly areas to achieve the objects of defense
3. Plain areas useful for business activities
4. River banks
5. Sea or ocean fronts

The functional aspects of origin of towns are as follows.

1. Education
2. Health resorts
3. Political
4. Community

Growth of Town

The towns grow during passage of time in number of ways and various forces which contribute to the overall development of a town are transportation facilities, industries, safety for public, proximity of agricultural lands, availability of electric power, political importance, etc. Some of the reasons why the people would like to stay in urban areas can be enumerated as follows.

• It is quite likely that people have often found to stay in groups or societies to safeguard themselves from dangers of theft.
• The humans by nature are social animal and they get much satisfaction of living their life in the company of friends and community.
• An urban man can develop contacts and make friends with like-minded people having common interest.
• The urban dwellers can maintain a very high degree of privacy.
• The urban are provide with reliable water supply, good market for business, large amount of opportunities to succeed, etc.

Also the facilities of transport and communication increase the population and leads to the growth of towns. The means of transport may take up the following forms.

• Aerial ports : In some cases, the airports plays an important role in the growth of a town.
• Railways : If the town is connected with railways, there will be increase of passengers and goods traffic even from long distances.
• Roadways : The neighbouring area is connected with the town and it leads to overall expansion of trade and industry.
• Waterways : If facilities of waterways are available, the town can grow as a harbour with possibility of foreign trade and business.

The above mentioned means of transport have led to the horizontal growth of town. But the availability of mechanical lifts, escalators and elevators has made it possible to have vertical growth of town in the form of skyscrapers.

Fig. 1 Types of Growth of Towns

Types of Growth of Town

The growth of towns and cities can be studied in the following two ways.

I) Growth according to origin

II) Growth according to direction

1) Growth According to Origin

The growth of towns and cities according to the origin can be divided in two categories.

A) Natural Growth

Most of the towns in the past have grown in a natural way, that is, the development of the town as such has taken place without any future planning. The provisions of various essential amenities such as road system, parks, playgrounds, schools, industrial units, commercial centres, hospitals, cinemas, etc., are made in an irregular way without consideration for future expansion of the town. The natural growth of a town may be in the form of following four types.

a) Concentric spread

b) Ribbon development

c) Satellite growth

d) Scattered growth

a) Concentric Spread

• It is the natural tendency of the people to be as near as possible to town or city, therefore the town develops in form of concentric rings with nucleus as town.
• These type of growth create many complicated problems such as traffic congestion, narrow streets,concentration of population, improper housing, etc.
• The town growth is represented by a series of concentric circles or rings.
• The first zone represents central business like commercial and social life of the town.
• The second zone represents low-income housing, better-class residences and high-class residences are subsequently formed.
• The idea of concentric spread is based on the fact that similar or functionally related activities will be located at the same distance from the centre of an urban area.

Fig. 2 Concentric Spread

b) Ribbon Development

• It has been observed that because of improvement of road surface and growth of motor traffic, everyone build or occupy the places as near as possible to the main road.
• The building activity therefore expands in a natural way along the sides of main road and long fingers or ribbons of houses, factories, shops, etc., develop as shown in figure below.

Fig. 3 Ribbon Development

Disadvantages

• As houses extend in a long strip or ribbon, there is increase in cost of utility services such as water supply and electricity, postal deliveries, etc.
• It results into wastage of available resources.
• It lacks social life as ribbon development causes scatter of community.
• The future improvement becomes costly and difficult, in some place it becomes impossible.
• The interior place are left undeveloped which results in wastage of valuable land.
• It causes accidents and traffic delays (jams) due to pedestrians on the main road.
• The traffic capacity and efficiency of main road are reduced.
• The ribbon development spoils the countryside view as it becomes non-visible at least for road users.
• The problem of ribbon development is complex involving social-economic, political, technical and legal measures for its solution.

c) Satellite Growth

When a town reaches a certain size, satellite growth is bound to take place. The satellite town is mainly due to the metropolis and it indicate a body under the influence of a more powerful body but possessing its own identity. Development of satellite towns around the parent city is shown in the figure below.

Fig. 4 Satellite Growth

The features of a satellite town are as follows.

• It has its own local government and corporate life.
• It is a town in the full sense but it depends to a certain extent upon a nearby large town or city.
• It is connected to the parent city by local trains, buses, etc. in such a way the people can reach to the parent city easily.
• It is free to decide its economic, social and cultural activities.
• It is generally situated beyond the green belt of the parent city.
• It is mainly residential area having only local shops, schools for children, etc.
• No industries are permitted, the people will have to depend on the parent city for employment opportunities.
• It is neither a village nor a suburb.
• It need not have zoning regulations.
• Its size and development are controlled in such a way that it does not affect the parent town in future.
• The satellite may even be considered to be the part of market for some goods and services from the parent town.
• The workers living in particular satellite may belong to the labour force of a certain industry. It gives a wider choice to the employers of such industries for finding the best man for the job.

Disadvantages

• The main disadvantage of satellite growth is the necessity of the long journey to work. (It may be long journey in distance does not necessarily mean a long journey in time due to efficient modes of transport and traffic).
• Satellite growth may be deprived of entertainment and cultural activity.
• It is responsible for preventing the development of a community spirit.
• Lack of community centres and halls.

d) Scattered Growth

• The growth of the town takes place in very irregular way.
• It results in traffic congestion.
• Encroachment of industries on residential areas.
• Development of slums.
• Lack of parks and various other problems which prove to be too difficult to be solved in future.

B) Planned Growth

In case of a planned growth, a town develops in a pre-determined line as conceived by the town planner. The overall growth of the town is controlled by the enforcement of suitable rules and regulations. There is rational distribution of various blocks such as residential, industrial, commercial, etc.

The provision of various amenities such as widths of streets, drainage lines, water supply lines, parks, playgrounds, etc. is made to meet with the future requirements. The modern concepts of town planning can very well be seen and appreciated in some of the recent new towns in many parts of the world.

2) Growth According to Direction

With respect to direction, the growth of towns and cities can take place in the following two ways.

1. Horizontal Growth

The town expands and develops horizontally in all directions. It is clear that such a growth will be possible at places where land is available in plenty at nominal cost.

Advantages

• In general, there will be saving in cost as the buildings will usually consist of two or three floors.
• It does not require the service of high technical personnel.
• Maximum possible use of the natural light in the buildings.
• The density of the population can be restricted.
• There is economy of floor space as the provision of columns, lifts, etc. will not be required.
• The surrounding marginal space can be utilized for developing gardens.

Disadvantages

• It uses more land and hence, it will prove to be uneconomical where the land value are very high.
• The foundation cost per unit area will be more.
• There will be absence of group living.

2. Vertical Growth

The buildings of the town are designed and developed as multistoried flats. It is quite evident that such a growth will be possible at places where land is costly.

Advantages

• A sense of group living and unity develops as many families live in same building.
• The foundation cost will be distributed between all the floors, therefore the foundation cost per unit area will be in the reasonable limit.
• For floor above certain height, the natural sceneries such as sea view, river view, etc. can be enjoyed in a better way.
• It will be possible to make maximum use of the modern technology such as fire-proofing, sound-proofing, heat insulation, air-conditioning, high speed elevators, etc.
• There will be considerable saving in land and hence, it will prove to be economical where land values are very high.
• There will be economy in construction cost as the buildings will be designed as framed structures with repetition of a typical floor plan at each floor level.

Disadvantages

• In case of natural calamities such as earthquakes or fire, it will be difficult for the inhabitants (dwellers) of the upper floors to escape safely.
• The density of population will be more.
• The design of flats will be stereo-typed and there is no scope for personal likes or dislikes.
• The evils of group living will have to be tolerated.
• The failure of lift, pumps, etc. will cause great inconvenience.
• The people staying at upper floors will be deprived of natural living near the ground level.
• There will be some wastage of floor space as lifts, supporting columns, etc. will have to be provided.

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Town Planning Process

All stages of actions from defining the objectives till implementation and review of any planning project in the planning process. In plan preparation, the physical planning should associate with the socio-economical, geographical, political factors, for achieving the objective in desired direction. The various stages of planning process are as follows.

1.Identification and Definition of Problems

Various problems with reference to the results obtained by studies and surveys and with reference to the objectives are identified.

2. Defining the Objectives

Here the objectives of the planning are identified. The general objectives of any planning of urban area is

• To regulate growth
• To nullify the bad effects of past growth
• To improve the transportation facilities
• To optimize the resources utilization
• To balance population and economic activities
• To promote social integration among different categories
• To promote a convenient comfortable, beautiful and healthy environment

3. Studies and Survey

The following studies and surveys are taken up for plan preparation.

• Identification of growth (physical, economic, social, cultural, institutional, administrative and political)
• Identification of trend and direction of growth
• Traffic survey
• Study on demography
• Climate

4. Analysis of Data and Preparation of Study Maps

The data obtained is analyzed – observations and conclusions have to be derived out of the studies and surveys. The short-term objectives and long-term objectives are identified – various study maps, charts and graphs are prepared.

5. Forecasting

Period of demographic projection is prescribed. Forecasting of about migration, employment, industrialization and other rapid urbanization possibilities are to be made.

6. Design

This is an important aspect in the planning process. Need to relate existing pattern, interactions and trends is to be examined. Preparation of development plans, formulation of zones, alteration to the existing zoning regulations, widening of roads etc. are made in detail here. Alternatives are also made for effective and quick implementation of plan. The plan should also be able to cope with sudden and unexpected events. Possibility of changing from one strategy to another should be designed at the same time keeping in view its practicability and the total expenditure involved.

7. Fixation of Priorities

Since all the proposals cannot be taken up at one time due to financial and administrative difficulties, priorities should be fixed for taking up the implementation depending upon the importance and urgency.

8. Implementation

Implementation is the most important stage where all the earlier efforts to prepare plan is to be put into practice to achieve the objectives. The authority, which takes up the implementation, is to fulfill all the required legal obligations in time – zoning regulations, land acquisition for road widening and for other purposes is taken-up.

9. Review, Evaluation and Feedback

The work of implementation has to be monitored by taking – up periodical inspections and obtaining review reports. Feedback is essential periodically. The plan should be flexible for modifications depending upon the necessities.

Types of Surveys

Surveys can broadly be divided into two categories depending on the area upon which they are to be conducted. They are:

1. Regional Surveys

They are those surveys, which are done over a region dealing with physical factors like topography, physically difficult land, geology, landscape etc. Physical economic factors like agricultural value of the land, mineral resources and water gathering lands, areas with public services, transportation linkages etc. Social economic factors like areas of influence of towns and villages, employment, population changes etc.

2. Town Surveys

They are done at much small scale and apart from the above data collected from the regional surveys it also includes

• Land use surveys
• Density surveys
• Surveys for the age and condition of the buildings
• Traffic surveys

Other social surveys for conducting proper survey, primarily relevant enquiries should be framed in the form of questionnaires for presentation, when required.

Techniques of Surveys

1. Self-surveys (i.e. mailing questionnaires to the persons to be surveyed)

2. Interviews (i.e. by asking questions to the people to be surveyed)

3. Direct inspection (i.e. when the surveyor himself inspects the situations concerned)

4. Observers participation (i.e. when the observer himself participate in acquiring the data

required)

Approaches to Planning

1. Comprehensive planning

The traditional four-step planning process - the identification of problems and issues; the establishment of goals and objectives; data collection and analysis; and plan preparation and implementation.

2. Issue-oriented planning

Some communities do not get around to planning until a problem or a crisis has occurred. Issue-oriented planning focuses attention on the problems and issues of greatest concern to a community at a particular point in time. This is an “old-fashioned approach” to planning,

3. Functional planning

Functional planning is a slower version of comprehensive planning.

4. Strategic planning

Major emphasis should be placed on the selection and application of strategies to resolve identified issues and attain desired goals. The principal steps in strategic planning are

• Scan the environment and select key issues.
• Formulate goals or missions for the key issues.
• Analyze each issue, developing a list of community strengths and weaknesses.
• Develop strategies that are realistic and take into account those strengths and weaknesses.
• Implement strategies using public and private resources.
• Monitor and update the plan to ensure implementation.

5. Vision-based Planning

Imagines what a community should look like in the future and then develops a plan to achieve that vision. This visioning process is unique, but it is often included as an element of a variety of master plans. It is a positive approach to planning and can be very inspiring.

6. Urban Planning (urban, city, and town planning)

It is a technical and political process concerned with the control of the use of land and design of the urban environment, including transportation networks, to guide and ensure the orderly development of settlements and communities.

Elements of City/Town Planning

1.  Communication & Transportation
2. Built up Area
3. Open space (Parks, Playgrounds, Recreational unit)
4. Public utility services (Electricity, Gas, Telephone, Fire safety)
5. Public amenities (Post office, Bank, Police, Solid waste disposal, Petrol pump, Court)

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Principles of Town Planning

Town planning cannot be studied in isolation. It involves the study of various subjects such as engineering, architecture, surveying, transportation planning etc. The intention of the town planning is to satisfy the needs of our future generations and prevent the haphazard growth of the town. Some of the guiding principles of town planning are as follows. 

1. Zoning 

The town should be divided into suitable zones such as commercial zone, industrial zone, residential zone, etc. and suitable rules and regulations should be formed for the development of each zone. 

2. Green Belt 

Green belt is non-development zone on the periphery of the town. It prevents the haphazard sprawl of the town restricting its size. In essence, a green belt is an invisible line designating a border around a certain area, preventing development of the area and allowing wildlife to return and be established. Greenways and green wedges have a linear character and may run across the town and not around the town. 

3. Housing 

Housing has to be carefully studied and designed to suit the local population. Care should be taken to see that there is no development of slums since it would be responsible for degrading the life of the citizens. There are various types of housing styles. When a landuse plan is made, zones for independent housing, midrise buildings, high rise buildings are allocated. 

4. Public Buildings 

Public buildings should be well grouped and distributed throughout the town. Unnecessary concentration of public buildings should be avoided. Factors such as parking facilities, road widths have to be taken into consideration while allocating the space for public buildings. 

5. Recreation Centres 

Recreation centres have to be given importance while designing a town. They are necessary for the recreational activities of the general public. They include parks for walking and cycling, amusement parks etc. 

6. Road Systems 

Road network hierarchy is very important. The efficiency of any town is measured by the layout of its roads. A nicely designed road system puts a great impression in the minds of people, especially the visitors to the town. The provision of a faulty road system in the initial stages of town formation proves to be too difficult and costly to repair or to re-arrange in future. 

7. Transport Facilities 

The town should be provided with suitable transport facilities so that there is minimum loss of time from place of work to the place of residence. Efficiency in transport facilities includes both public and private networks. Public transportation network includes access to buses, trains, trams and trolleybuses. Efficiency in using the public transport will determine the success of that town in terms of design.

Objectives of Town Planning

The main objectives of the town planning may be summarized in three words viz. Health, Convenience, Beauty and Environment.

1. Health

To make right use of the land for the right purpose by proper division of land called zoning such as residential, commercial industrial, institutional and recreational etc. inorder to avoid the encroachment of one zone upon other for smooth and orderly development of the town or city without causing future conflicts. To create and promote healthy conditions and environments for all the people – rich and poor, to live, to work, to play or relax.

2. Convenience

The object of convenience is meant in the form of various needs of the community such as social, economic, cultural and recreational amenities etc. Public amenities requiredfor the proper upkeep of the citizens include water supply, sanitation, electricity, post,telegraph, gas etc., proper sites for industrial, commercial, business enterprises toencourage them in trade with cheap power, transport services, drainage etc. Recreational amenities include open spaces, parks, gardens and playgrounds, for children and town halls stadiums, community centers, cinema houses, and theatres for adults.

3. Beauty

To preserve the individuality of the town by developing it on its most suited natural conditions. To preserve the aesthetics in the design of all elements of town or city plan, which includes preservation of trees, natural greenery, improved types of domestic buildings and buildings of civic dignity and beauty, architectural control on public as well as semi-public buildings, ancient architectural buildings, temples, churches, mosques and buildings of cultural and historical importance.

4. Environment

It is an important factor in town planning. The environment of the town should be in such a way that people can lead their normal activities with least difficulty. The complex problems of modern society such as tiresome travel to work, long hours of work, limited time spent within the family and community, etc. has led to serious problems in the lifestyle of the people living in the towns, therefore, town planning is mainly concerned with brining about a better relation between man and his environment.

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Aims/Benefits of Town Planning

Town planning has gained a lot of importance today. New towns are being developed. It has become very important for the town planners to concentrate on old development as well as the new development. It is essential that old and new development are linked properly. Energy efficiency in planning should be the goal of any town planner, urban designer or an architect. The aims of town planning are as follows.

1. To correct the past errors as far as possible.
2. To provide civic aesthetics of the town.
3. To attempt an orderly appropriate and balanced arrangements of land use.
4. To develop healthy, attractive and efficient environment in the city.
5. To promote a high level of culture.
6. To create and maintain an attractive central core and make it the cultural, financial, commercial and entertainment centre.
7. To provide an interrelated balanced transportation system adequate to meet the needs of everyone in the urban community.
8. To encourage the attraction, retention and expansion of a sufficient number and variety of industries and business activities to provide jobs to the people and to get more income to municipality.
9. To create a sense of dignity, identity, pride and responsibility in the social environment.
10. To suggest the schemes which will control the future growth and development of the city.
11. To insure against the possible future errors.
12. To concentrate for development of full potentials of human resources through wide variety of programmes, facilities and other incentives.
13. To establish and maintain a consistent housing policy providing for decent housing open to all persons in the community at reasonable prices and rents.
14. To encourage vigorous programmes of inspection, maintenance of health environment in the city.
15. Suggestions will be given to provide maximum housing facilities as per the income through various concerned authorities.
16. To encourage the development of neighbourhoods as social and recreational units and promote the neighbourhood organizations and involvement in the improvement of local services, facilities, transportation and living conditions.
17. Suggestions will be made for efficient transportation facilities in the city including new roads, widening the roads repairing maintenance depending upon the localities and functional zones.
18. To develop parks and recreation facilities to optimum standards based on local needs preserving as many sites of natural and historical significance as possible.
19. To provide maximum educational and medical facilities.
20. To provide maximum utility service facilities to reach all people of the city.
21. To promote maximum co-operation between Government and public to get the benefits of development schemes of urban development.
22. To implement effective measure of slum clearance programmes in the city and controlling the further development of slum in the city.
23. Suggestions will be made to demolish old structures of public and private houses.
24. To suggest relocation, redevelopment and renewal of structure in the city.
25. To create maximum green and open spaces in the urban limit.
26. Measures will be suggested to control the pollution of air, water, noise etc.
27. Improvement and modernization of water supply, sewerage, electricity etc.
28. Improvement of site development for residential industrial, public and semi-public use.

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Urban Planning

Urban planning, also known as town planning, is a technical and political process that is focused on the development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportation, communication and distribution networks and their accessibility. (Urban planning is similar to town planning but done on a much larger scale). Urban planning is the design and regulation of the uses of space that focus on the physical form, economic functions and social impacts of the urban environment. Urban planning concerns itself with both the development of open land and the revitalization of existing parts of the city, thereby involving goal setting, data collection and analysis, forecasting, design, strategic thinking and public consultation. Increasingly, the technology of geographic information systems (GIS) has been used to map the existing urban system and to project the consequences of changes. 

Urban planning is an interdisciplinary field that includes aspects of civil engineering, architecture, geography, political science, environmental studies, design science and other sciences. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, engineering architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management. 

The modern origins of urban planning lie in a social movement for urban reform that arose in the latter part of the 19th century as a reaction against the disorder of the industrial city. Many visionaries of the period sought an ideal city, yet practical considerations of adequate sanitation, movement of goods and people and provision of amenities also drove the desire for planning. Contemporary planners seek to balance the conflicting demands of social equity, economic growth, environmental sensitivity and aesthetic appeal. The result of the planning process may be a formal master plan for an entire city or metropolitan area, a project plan, or a set of policy alternatives. Successful implementation of a plan usually requires entrepreneurship and political astuteness. 

Traditionally, urban planning followed a top-down approach in planning the physical layout of human settlements. The primary concern was the public welfare, which included considerations of efficiency, sanitation, protection and use of the environment, as well as effects of the master plans on the social and economic activities. Over time, urban planning has adopted a focus on the social and environmental bottom-lines that focus on planning as a tool to improve the health and well-being of people while maintaining sustainability standards. Sustainable development was added as one of the main goals of all planning endeavors in the late 20th century when the detrimental economic and the environmental impacts of the previous models of planning had become apparent.

Urban

The concrete technical aspects defining ‘urban’ are: 

• Population size 
• Population density 
• Economic base
• Presence of a municipal body

There must be a minimum number of people residing in the place for it to be called urban; these people must be concentrated in a particular area and not scattered; there should be a minimum number of people in one unit area of land; they should be engaged in economic activities other than primary ones such as agriculture or animal rearing etc. and there must be a municipality or town committee or a planning and governing body to take care of the services and planning of that place. There is no common minimum number that can be put against these aspects, as no numbers are universally applicable all over the world. All countries have their own specifications for each of these aspects and they vary considerably.

In India, the Census defines an urban area as one with: 

• Population more than 5000 
• Population density over 400 persons per sq.km 
• 75% of the male population engaged in non-agricultural occupations

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