Civil Engineering Functions

The functions of the civil engineer can be divided into three categories: those performed before construction (feasibility studies, site investigations, and design), those performed during construction (dealing with clients, consulting engineers, and contractors) and those performed after construction (maintenance and research).

1) Feasibility studies

No major project today is started without an extensive study of the objective and without preliminary studies of possible plans leading to a recommended scheme, perhaps with alternatives. Feasibility studies may cover alternative methods.

2) Site investigations

A preliminary site investigation is part of the feasibility study, but once a plan has been adopted a more extensive investigation is usually imperative. Money spent in a rigorous study of ground and substructure may save large sums later in remedial works or in changes made necessary in constructional methods.

3) Design

The design of engineering works may require the application of design theory from many fields—e.g., hydraulics, thermodynamics, or nuclear physics. Research in structural analysis and the technology of materials has opened the way for more rational designs, new design concepts, and greater economy of materials. The theory of structures and the study of materials have advanced together as more and more refined stress analysis of structures. Modern designers not only have advanced theories and readily available design data, but structural designs can now be rigorously analyzed by computers.

4) Construction

The promotion of civil engineering works may be initiated by a private client, but most work is undertaken for large corporations, government authorities, public boards and authorities. Many of these have their own engineering staffs, but for large specialized projects it is usual to employ consulting engineers.

The consulting engineer may be required first to undertake feasibility studies, then to recommend a scheme and quote an approximate cost. The engineer is responsible for the design of the works, supplying specifications, drawings, and legal documents in sufficient detail to seek competitive tender prices. The engineer must compare quotations and recommend acceptance of one of them. Although not a party to the contract, the engineer’s duties are defined in it; the staff must supervise the construction and the engineer must certify completion of the work.

A phenomenon of recent years has been the turnkey or package contract, in which the contractor undertakes to finance, design, specify, construct, and commission a project in its entirety. In this case, the consulting engineer is engaged by the contractor rather than by the client.

5) Maintenance

The contractor maintains the works to the satisfaction of the consulting engineer. Responsibility for maintenance extends to ancillary and temporary works where these form part of the overall construction. After construction a period of maintenance is undertaken by the contractor, and the payment of the final installment of the contract price is held back until released by the consulting engineer. Central and local government engineering and public works departments are concerned primarily with maintenance, for which they employ direct labour.

6) Research

Research in the civil engineering field is undertaken by government agencies, industrial foundations, the universities and other institutions. Most countries have government-controlled agencies involved in a broad spectrum of research, and establishments in building research, roads and highways, hydraulic research, water pollution and other areas. Many are government-aided but depend partly on income from research work promoted by industry.

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Sub-disciplines/Branches in Civil Engineering

There are a number of sub-disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, dams, electric and communications supply. Civil engineers apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction.

1. Structural Engineering

Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers, flyovers (overpasses), tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, aero structure and other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function.

Design considerations will include strength, stiffness, and stability of the structure when subjected to loads which may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads or transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, construction procedure, safety, aesthetics and sustainability.

2. Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems. Knowledge from the field of soil science, materials science, mechanics, and hydraulics is applied to safely and economically design foundations, retaining walls and other structures. Geotechnical engineering is the study of the behaviour of soils under the influence of loading forces and soil-water interactions. This knowledge is applied to the design of foundations, retaining walls, earth dams, clay liners and geosynthetics for waste containment.

The geotechnical engineer is involved in field and laboratory investigations to determine the engineering properties of site soils and other geomaterials and their subsequent use. Geotechnical engineering includes the analysis, design and construction of foundations, slopes, retaining structures, embankments, roadways, tunnels, levees, wharves, landfills and other systems that are made of or are supported by soil or rock.

3. Surveying

Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the earth. Surveying equipment such as levels and theodolites are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerization, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instruments. Data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical representation of the earth's surface in the form of a map. Elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures.

Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as positioning other infrastructure, such as harbors, before construction.

4. Transportation Engineering

Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some aspects of urban engineering, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management.

5. Environmental Engineering

Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste management and environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering. Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological or thermal wastes, purification of water and air and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination.

6. Materials Science and Engineering

Materials science is closely related to civil engineering. It studies fundamental characteristics of engineering materials such as concrete, fine and coarse aggregates, cement, strong metals such as aluminum and steel and thermosetting polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers etc. Materials engineering involves protection and prevention (paints and finishes). Alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties.

7. Construction Engineering

Construction engineering involves planning and execution, transportation of materials, site development based on hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineering. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms, construction engineers often engage in more business-like transactions, for example, drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and monitoring prices of supplies.

6. Coastal Engineering

Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. The objectives of this branch involve management of shoreline erosion, improvement of navigation channels and harbors, protection against flooding brought on by storms, tides and even seismically triggered waves (tsunamis), improvement of coastal recreation and management of pollution in nearby marine environments. Coastal engineering typically includes the development of structures, in addition to the transportation and probable stabilization of beach sand along with other coastal sediments.

7. Earthquake Engineering

Earthquake engineering involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures. Earthquake engineering is a sub-discipline of structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground, foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes and design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes.

8. Municipal Engineering

Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials. In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimizing of waste collection, potable water supply, treatment or pretreatment of waste water, site drainage etc.

9. Urban Engineering 

Urban engineers design, build and manage the infrastructure systems such as roads, bridges, water supply, waste management and transportation that are vital for urban areas to function efficiently. Urban engineers provide a physical definition of the urban habitat by planning, designing, building/constructing, operating, and maintaining the infrastructure including buildings and roads. This infrastructure, on the one hand, facilitates social and economic interactions within the urban habitat through ubiquitous transportation and communication systems. On the other hand, it also directly affects physical health and ecological balance within

the urban system through the provision of drinking water, air quality and waste treatment. Urban engineering focuses on designing and managing infrastructure systems in urban areas. As the world's population becomes increasingly urbanized, the role of urban engineers has become more critical in ensuring the smooth functioning of cities.

10. Water resources engineering

Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it therefore combines elements of hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, conservation and resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, through or out of a facility.

11. Fluid Mechanics 

Fluid mechanics deals with the study of fluids (liquids and gases) in a state of rest or motion is an important subject of civil, mechanical and chemical engineering. Its various branches are fluid statics, fluid kinematics and fluid dynamics. Fluid mechanics is concerned with the response of fluids to forces exerted upon them. A substance that flows is called as fluid. All liquid and gaseous substances are considered to be fluids. Water, oil, and others are very important in our day-to-day life as they are used for various applications. For instance water is used for generation of electricity in hydroelectric power plants and thermal power plants, water is also used as the coolant in nuclear power plants, oil is used for the lubrication of automobiles etc.

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History of Civil Engineering

Because of the civil engineering is a broad profession, including several specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environmental science, mechanics, project management, and other fields. Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder.

One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3^rd century BC, including Archimedes' principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7^th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.

Pyramids in Egypt

Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley civilization and Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.

Qanat water management system

The construction of pyramids in Egypt (2700–2500 BC) were some of the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the oldest is older than 3000 years and longer than 71 kilometres, the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), the Appian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC) and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.

Chichen Itza was a large pre-Columbian city in Mexico built by the Maya people of the Post Classic. The northeast column temple also covers a channel that funnels all the rainwater from the complex some 40 metres (130 ft) away to a rejollada, a former cenote.

Chichen Itza

In the 18^th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. In 1747, the first institution for the teaching of civil engineering, the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (National School of Bridges and Roads) was established in France; and more examples followed in other European countries, like Spain. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse. In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.

In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London. The institution received a Royal charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. The first private college to teach civil engineering in the United States was Norwich University, founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in civil engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.

In the UK during the early 19^th century, the division between civil engineering and military engineering (served by the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich), coupled with the demands of the Industrial Revolution, spawned new engineering education initiatives: the Class of Civil Engineering and Mining was founded at King's College London in 1838, mainly as a response to the growth of the railway system and the need for more qualified engineers, the private College for Civil Engineers in Putney was established in 1839, and the UK's first Chair of Engineering was established at the University of Glasgow in 1840.

The beginnings of civil engineering as a separate discipline may be seen in the foundation in France in 1716 of the Bridge and Highway Corps, out of which in 1747 grew the “École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées” (National School of Bridges and Highways). Its teachers wrote books that became standard works on the mechanics of materials, machines and hydraulics. As design and calculation replaced rule of thumb and empirical formulas, and as expert knowledge was codified and formulated, the nonmilitary engineer moved to the front of the stage. Talented, if often self-taught, craftsmen, stonemasons, millwrights, toolmakers, and instrument makers became civil engineers. In Britain, James Brindley began as a millwright and became the foremost canal builder of the century; John Rennie was a millwright’s apprentice who eventually built the New London Bridge; Thomas Telford, a stonemason, became Britain’s leading road builder.

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Civil Engineering

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings and railways.

In other words, Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for the design, development and maintenance of both the constructed and the naturally built environment. This includes infrastructure such as airports, bridges, buildings, canals, dams, pipelines, power plants, railways, roads, sewage systems, and more.

In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London. The institution received a Royal charter in 1828, formally recognizing civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:

“the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.”

Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering and the term was first used in the 18th century to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. The broad nature and long history of civil engineering means that its own growth as a discipline is closely associated to the development of human knowledge in areas including physics, mathematics, structures and construction, geography, geology, hydrology, environmental and materials sciences, mechanics, and more. Civil engineering is one of the oldest and broadest engineering professions. It focuses on the infrastructure necessary to support a civilized society.

Civil engineering projects can come through the public sector, from government agencies, or through the private sector, and can be either large or small in scale, with civil engineers working in fields such as planning, budgeting, project and asset management, research, analysis, and more. Society relies on civil engineers to maintain and advance human health, safety, and our standard of living.

From earliest times, however, engineers have engaged in peaceful activities, and many of the civil engineering works of ancient and medieval times—such as the Roman public baths, roads, bridges, and aqueducts; the Flemish canals; the Dutch sea defenses; the French Gothic cathedrals; and many other monuments—reveal a history of inventive genius and persistent experimentation. Scientific principles, such as those developed by the ancient Greek Archimedes of Syracuse, were applied as they were understood, helping to drive engineering forward, which continues to this day with new innovations and research.

Civil engineering is the professional practice of designing and developing infrastructure projects. This can be on a huge scale, such as the development of nationwide transport systems or water supply networks, or on a smaller scale, such as the development of individual roads or buildings.

The Roman aqueducts, the great European cathedrals, and the earliest metal bridges were built by highly skilled forerunners of the modern civil engineer. These craftsmen of old relied on their intuition, trade skills, and experience-based design rules or heuristics, derived from years of trial and error experiments but rarely passed on to the next generation.

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