Total Pressure and Centre of Pressure

When a static mass of fluid comes in contact with a surface, either plane or curved, a force is exerted by the fluid on the surface. This force is known as total pressure. Since for a fluid at rest no tangential force exists, the total pressure acts in the direction normal to the surface. The point of application of total pressure on the surface is known as centre of pressure. As indicated later an engineer is often required to compute the magnitude of total pressure and to locate its point of application in the design of several hydraulic structures.

Total Pressure on a Horizontal Plane Surface

Consider a plane surface immersed in a static mass of liquid of specific weight w, such that it is held in a horizontal position at a depth ‘h’ below the free surface of the liquid, as shown in Fig. 1. Since every point on the surface is at the same depth below the free surface of the liquid, the pressure intensity is constant over the entire plane surface, being equal to p = wh. Thus if ‘A’ is the total area of the surface then the total pressure on the horizontal surface is

                                                                       P = pA = (wh) A = wAh                                                (1)

Fig. 1 Total pressure on a Horizontal Plane Surface

The direction of this force is normal to the surface, as such it is acting towards the surface in the vertical downward direction at the centroid of the surface.

Total Pressure on a Vertical Plane Surface

Fig. 2 shows a plane surface of arbitrary shape and total area ‘A’, wholly submerged in a static mass of liquid of specific weight ‘w’. The surface is held in a vertical position, such that the centroid of the surface is at a vertical depth of ‘x’ below the free surface of the liquid. It is required to determine the total pressure exerted by the liquid on one face of the plane surface.

Fig. 2 Total Pressure on a Vertical Plane Surface

In this case since the depth of liquid varies from point to point on the surface, the pressure intensity is not constant over the entire surface. As such the total pressure on the surface may be determined by dividing the entire surface into a number of small parallel strips and computing the total pressures on each of these strips. A summation of these total pressures on the small strips will give the total pressure on the entire plane surface.

Consider on the plane surface a horizontal strip of thickness ‘dx’ and width ‘b’ lying at a vertical depth ‘x’ below the free surface of the liquid. Since the thickness of the strip is very small, for this strip the pressure intensity may be assumed to be constant equal to p = wx. The area of the strip being dA = (b × dx), the total pressure on the strip becomes

                                                                            dP = pdA = wx(bdx)                                                  (2)

Total pressure on the entire plane surface is

P = ∫ dP = w∫ x(bdx)

But ∫ x (bdx) represents the sum of the first moments of the areas of the strips about an axis OO, (Which is obtained by the intersection of the free surface of the liquid with the vertical plane in which the plane surface is lying) which from the basic principle of mechanics is equal to the product of the area A and the distance x of the centroid of the surface area from the same axis OO. That is

∫ x (bdx) = Ax̄

                                                                              P = wA x̄                                                        (3)

Equation (3) thus represents a general expression for total pressure exerted by a liquid on a plane surface. Since w x̄ is the intensity of pressure at the centroid of the surface area, it can be stated that the total pressure on a plane surface is equal to the product of the area of the surface and the intensity of pressure at the centroid of the area.

Total pressure on a horizontal plane surface can also be determined by Eq. (3), since in this case

x̄ = h.

Total Pressure on Inclined Plane Surface

Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape and total area ‘A’, wholly submerged in a static mass of liquid of specific weight ‘w’. The surface is held inclined such that the plane of the surface makes an angle ‘θ’ with the horizontal as shown in Fig. 3. The intersection of this plane with the free surface of the liquid is represented by axis OO, which is normal to the plane of the paper.

Let x̄ be the vertical depth of the centroid of the plane surface below the free surface of the liquid and the inclined distance of the centroid from axis OO measured along the inclined plane is ȳ.

Consider on the plane surface, a small strip of area ‘dA’ lying at a vertical depth of ‘x’ and its distance from axis OO being ‘y’. For this strip the pressure intensity may be assumed to be constant equal to p = wx.

Fig. 3 Total Pressure on Inclined Plane Surface

Total pressure on the strip is 

dP = wx (dA)

Since x = y sin θ

dP = w (y sin θ) (dA)

By integrating the above expression the total pressure on the entire surface is obtained as

P = (w sin θ) ∫ y (dA)

Again ∫ y dA represents the sum of the first moments of the areas of the strips about axis OO, which is equal to the product of the area A and the inclined distance of the centroid of the surface area from axis OO. That is

∫ y dA = A ȳ

                                                                                       ∴ P = wA (ȳ sin θ)                                      (4)

But x̄ = ȳ sin θ

                                                                                           P = wA x̄                                                (5)

Eq. 5 is same as Eq. 3, thereby indicating that for a plane surface wholly submerged in a static mass of liquid and held either vertical or inclined, the total pressure is equal to the product of the pressure intensity at the centroid of the area and the area of the plane surface.

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Mechanical Gauges

Mechanical gauges are those pressure measuring devices, which embody an elastic element, which deflects under the action of the applied pressure and this movement mechanically magnified, operates a pointer moving against a graduated circumferential scale. Generally these gauges are used for measuring high pressures and where high precision is not required. Some of the mechanical pressure gauges which are commonly used are as noted below.

i) Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

It is the most common type of pressure gage which was invented by E. Bourdon (1808–84). The pressure responsive element in this gauge is a tube of steel or bronze which is of elliptic cross-section and is curved into a circular arc. The tube is closed at its outer end and this end of the tube is free to move. The other end of the tube, through which the fluid enters, is rigidly fixed to the frame as shown in Fig. 1. When the gauge is connected to the gauge point, under pressure enters the tube. Due to increase in internal pressure, the elliptical cross-section of the tube tends to become circular, thus causing the tube to straighten out slightly. The small outward movement of the free end of the tube is transmitted, through a link, quadrant and pinion, to a pointer which by moving clockwise on the graduated circular dial indicates the pressure intensity of the fluid.

The dial of the gage is so calibrated that it reads zero when the pressure inside the tube equals the local atmospheric pressure and the elastic deformation of the tube causes the pointer to be displaced on the dial in proportion to the pressure intensity of the fluid. By using tubes of appropriate stiffness, gauges for wide range of pressures may be made. Further by suitably modifying the graduations of the dial and adjusting the pointer Bourdon tube vacuum gauges can also be made.

When a vacuum gauge is connected to a partial vacuum, the tube tends to close, thereby moving the pointer in anti-clockwise direction, indicating the negative or vacuum pressure. The gauge dials are usually calibrated to read Newton per square metre (N/m²),or pascal (Pa), or kilogram (f) per square centimetre [kg(f)/cm²]. However other units of pressure, such as metres of water or centimetres of mercury, are also frequently used.

Fig. 1 Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

ii) Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

The pressure responsive element in this gage is an elastic steel corrugated diaphragm. The elastic deformation of the diaphragm under pressure is transmitted to a pointer by a similar arrangement as in the case of Bourdon tube pressure gauge. However, this gauge is used to measure relatively low pressure intensities. The Aneroid barometer operates on a similar principle.

Fig. 2 Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

iii) Bellows Pressure Gauge

In this gauge, the pressure responsive element is made up of a thin metallic tube having deep circumferential corrugations. In response to the pressure changes this elastic element expands or contracts, thereby moving the pointer on a graduated circular dial.

Fig.3 Bellows Pressure Gauge

iv) Dead -Weight Pressure Gauge

A simple form of a dead-weight pressure gauge consists of a plunger of diameter d, which can slide within a vertical cylinder, as shown in Fig. 4. The fluid under pressure, entering the cylinder, exerts a force on the plunger, which is balanced by the weights loaded on the top of the plunger. If the weight required to balance the fluid under pressure is W, then the pressure intensity ‘p’ of the fluid may be determined as, 

The only error that may be involved is due to frictional resistance offered to motion of the plunger in the cylinder. But this error can be avoided if the plunger is carefully ground, so as to fit with the least permissible clearance in the cylinder. Moreover, the whole mass can be rotated by hand before final readings are taken.

Fig. 4 Dead-Weight Pressure Gauge

Dead-weight gauges are generally not used so much to measure the pressure intensity at a particular point as to serve as standards of comparison. Hence as shown in Fig. 4, a pressure gauge which is to be checked or calibrated is set in parallel with the dead-weight gauge. Oil under pressure is pumped into the gauges, thereby lifting the plunger and balancing it against the oil pressure by loading it with known weights. The pressure intensity of the oil being thus known, the attached pressure gauge can either be tested for its accuracy or it can be calibrated.

A dead-weight gauge which can be used for measuring pressure at a point with more convenience. In this gauge a lever, same as in some of the weighing machines, is provided to magnify the pull of the weights. The load required to balance the force due to fluid pressure is first roughly adjusted by hanging weights from the end of the main beam. Then a smaller jockey weight is slide along to give precise balance. In more precise type of gauge the sliding motion may be contrived automatically by an electric motor.

The following points should be kept in view while making connections for the various pressure measuring devices.

• At the gauge point the hole should be drilled normal to the surface and it should flush with the inner surface.
• The diameters of the holes at the gauge points should be about 3 to 6 mm.
• The holes should not disturb the internal surface and no burrs or irregularities must be left.
• There should be no air pockets left over in the connecting tubes, which should be completely filled with the liquid. The presence of air bubbles can easily be detected if the connecting tubes are made of polythene or similar transparent material.

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Measurement of Pressure

In practice, pressure is always measured by the determination of a pressure difference. If the difference is that between the pressure of the fluid in question and that of a vacuum then the result is known as the absolute pressure of the fluid. More usually, the difference determined is that between the pressure of the fluid concerned and the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere. This is the difference normally recorded by pressure gauges and so is known as gauge pressure. If the pressure of the fluid is below that of the atmosphere it is termed vacuum or suction. (The term high vacuum refers to a low value of the absolute pressure.) The absolute pressure is always positive but gauge pressures are positive if they are greater than atmospheric and negative if less than atmospheric.

Most of the properties of a gas are functions of its absolute pressure and consequently values of the absolute pressure are usually required in problems concerning gases. Frequently it is the gauge pressure that is measured and the atmospheric pressure must be added to this to give the value of the absolute pressure. The properties of liquids are little affected by pressure and the pressure of a liquid is therefore usually expressed as a gauge value. The absolute pressure of a liquid may be of concern when the liquid is on the point of vaporizing.

Barometer

If the pressure of a liquid is only slightly greater than that of the atmosphere, a simple way of measuring it is to determine the height of the free surface in a piezometer tube. (The diameter of the tube must be large enough for the effect of surface tension to be negligible.) If such a piezometer tube of sufficient length were closed at the top and the space above the liquid surface were a perfect vacuum the height of the column would then correspond to the absolute pressure of the liquid at the base. This principle is used in the mercury barometer. Mercury is employed because its density is sufficiently high for a fairly short column to be obtained and also because it has, at normal temperatures, a very small vapour pressure. A perfect vacuum at the top of the tube is not in practice possible; even when no air is present the space is occupied by vapour given off from the surface of the liquid. The mercury barometer was invented in 1643 by the Italian Evangelista Torricelli and the near vacuum above the mercury is often known as the Torricellian vacuum. All air and other foreign matter is removed from the mercury and a glass tube full of it is then inverted with its open end submerged in pure mercury.

The various devices adopted for measuring fluid pressure may be broadly classified under the following two heads.

   1) Manometers

   2) Mechanical Gauges

Manometers

Manometers are those pressure measuring devices which are based on the principle of balancing the column of liquid (whose pressure is to be found) by the same or another column of liquid. The manometers may be classified as

   a) Simple Manometers

   b) Differential Manometers

Simple Manometers are those which measure pressure at a point in a fluid contained in a pipe or a vessel. On the other hand differential manometers measure the difference of pressure between any two points in a fluid contained in a pipe or a vessel. In general a simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to the gauge point where the pressure is to be measured and the other remains open to atmosphere. Some of the common types of simple manometers are given below.

   i) Piezometer

   ii) U-tube Manometer

   iii) Single Column Manometer

i) Piezometer

Piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which can be used for measuring moderate pressures of liquids. It consists of a glass tube (Fig. 1) inserted in the wall of a pipe or a vessel, containing a liquid whose pressure is to be measured. The tube extends vertically upward to such a height that liquid can freely rise in it without overflowing. The pressure at any point in the liquid is indicated by the height of the liquid in the tube above that point, which can be read on the scale attached to it. Thus, if ‘w’ is the specific weight of the liquid, then the pressure at point m in Fig. 1 is pm = whm. In other words, ‘hm’ is the pressure head at ‘m’. Piezometers measure gauge pressure only, since the surface of the liquid in the tube is subjected to atmospheric pressure.

Fig. 1 Piezometer

From the foregoing principles of pressure in homogeneous liquid at rest, it is obvious that the location of the point of insertion of a piezometer makes no difference. Hence piezometers may be inserted either in the top or the side or the bottom of the container, but the liquid will rise to the same level in the three tubes.

Negative gauge pressures (or pressures less than atmospheric) can be measured by means of the piezometer. It is evident that if the pressure in the container is less than the atmosphere no column of liquid will rise in the ordinary piezometer. But if the top of the tube is bent downward and its lower end dipped into a vessel containing water (or some other suitable liquid), the atmospheric pressure will cause a column of the liquid to rise to a height ‘h’ in the tube, from which the magnitude of the pressure of the liquid in the container can be obtained.

Neglecting the weight of the air caught in the portion of the tube, the pressure on the free surface in the container is the same as that at free surface in the tube and the equation may be expressed as

p = –wh,

where ‘w’ is the specific weight of the liquid used in the vessel. Conversely ‘–h’ is the pressure head at the free surface in the container.

Piezometers are also used to measure pressure heads in pipes where the liquid is in motion. Such tubes should enter the pipe in a direction at right angles to the direction of flow and the connecting end should be flush with the inner surface of the pipe. All burrs and surface roughness near the hole must be removed and it is better to round the edge of the hole slightly. Also, the hole should be small, preferably not larger than 3 mm. In order to prevent the capillary action from affecting the height of the column of liquid in a piezometer, the glass tube having an internal diameter less than 12 mm should not be used. Moreover, for precise work at low heads the tubes having an internal diameter of 25 mm may be used.

ii) U-tube Manometer

Piezometers cannot be used when large pressures in the lighter liquids are to be measured, since this would require very long tubes, which cannot be handled conveniently. Furthermore gas pressures cannot be measured by means of piezometers because a gas forms no free atmospheric surface. These limitations imposed on the use of piezometers may be overcome by the use of U-tube manometers. A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to the gauge point and the other end remains open to the atmosphere (Fig. 2). The tube contains a liquid of specific gravity greater than that of the fluid of which the pressure is to be measured.

Fig. 2 U-tube Manometer

Sometimes more than one liquid may also be used in the manometer. The liquids used in the manometers should be such that they do not get mixed with the fluids of which the pressures are to be measured. Some of the liquids that are frequently used in the manometers are mercury, oil, salt solution, carbon disulphide, carbon tetrachloride, bromoform and alcohol. Water may also be used as a manometric liquid when the pressures of gases or certain coloured liquids (which are immiscible with water) are to be measured. The choice of the manometric liquid, depends on the range of pressure to be measured. For low pressure range, liquids of lower specific gravities are used and for high pressure range, generally mercury is employed.

When one of the limbs of the U-tube manometer is connected to the gauge point, the fluid from the container or pipe A will enter the connected limb of the manometer, thereby causing the manometric liquid to raise in the open limb as shown in Fig. 2. An air relief valve V is usually provided at the top of the connecting tube which permits the expulsion of all air from the portion A’B and its place taken by the fluid in A. This is essential because the presence of even a small air bubble in the portion A’B would result in an inaccurate pressure measurement.

iii) Single Column Manometer

The U-tube manometers described above usually require readings of fluid levels at two or more points, since a change in pressure causes a rise of liquid in one limb of the manometer and a drop in the other. This difficulty may however be overcome by using single column manometers. A single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube manometer in which a shallow reservoir having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to the area of the tube is introduced into one limb of the manometer, as shown in Fig. 3. For any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level in the reservoir will be so small that it may be neglected and the pressure is indicated approximately by the height of the liquid in the other limb. As such only one reading in the narrow limb of the manometer need be taken for all pressure measurements.

Fig. 3 Single Column Manometer

The narrow limb of the manometer may be vertical or it may be inclined. The inclined type is useful for the measurement of small pressures. Since no reading is required to be taken for the level of liquid in the reservoir, it need not be made of transparent material. If the pressure at A in the container is negative, the manometric liquid surface in the reservoir will be raised by a certain distance and consequently there will be drop in the liquid surface in the tube. Again by adopting the same procedure the gage equations for the negative pressure measurement can also be obtained.

Differential Manometers

For measuring the difference of pressure between any two points in a pipeline or in two pipes or containers, a differential manometer is employed. In general a differential manometer consists of a bent glass tube, the two ends of which are connected to each of the two gauge points between which the pressure difference is required to be measured. Some of the common types of differential manometers are as noted below.

   i) Two–Piezometer Manometer

   ii) Inverted U-Tube Manometer

   iii) U- Tube Differential Manometer

   iv) Micromanometer

i) Two-Piezometer Manometer

As the name suggests this manometer consists of two separate piezometers which are inserted at the two gauge points between which the difference of pressure is required to be measured. The difference in the levels of the liquid raised in the two tubes will denote the pressure difference between the two points. Evidently this method is useful only if the pressure at each of the two points is small. Moreover it cannot be used to measure the pressure difference in gases, for which the other types of differential manometers described below may be employed.

ii) Inverted U-tube Manometer

It consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape and held inverted as shown in Fig. 4. Thus it is as if two piezometers described above are connected with each other at top. When the two ends of the manometer are connected to the points between which the pressure difference is required to be measured, the liquid under pressure will enter the two limbs of the manometer, thereby causing the air within the manometer to get compressed. The presence of the compressed air results in restricting the heights of the columns of liquids raised in the two limbs of the manometer. An air cock as shown in Fig. 4, is usually provided at the top of the inverted U tube which facilitates the raising of the liquid columns to suitable level in both the limbs by driving out a portion of the compressed air. It also permits the expulsion of air bubbles which might have been entrapped somewhere in the pipeline. If pA and pB are the pressure intensities at points A and B between which the inverted U-tube manometer is connected, then corresponding to these pressure intensities the liquid will rise above points A and B upto C and D in the two limbs of the manometer as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Inverted U-tube Manometer

iii) U-Tube Differential Manometer

It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, the two ends of which are connected to the two gauge points between which the pressure difference is required to be measured. Fig. 5 shows such an arrangement for measuring the pressure difference between any two points A and B. The lower part of the manometer contains a manometric liquid which is heavier than the liquid for which the pressure difference is to be measured and is immiscible with it.

Fig. 5 U-Tube Differential Manometer

iv) Micromanometers

For the measurement of very small pressure differences or for the measurement of pressure differences with very high precision, special forms of manometers called micromanometers are used. A wide variety of micromanometers have been developed, which either magnify the readings or permit the readings to be observed with greater accuracy. One simple type of micromanometer consists of a glass U-tube, provided with two transparent basins of wider sections at the top of the two limbs, as shown in Fig. 6. The manometer contains two manometric liquids of different specific gravities and immiscible with each other and with the fluid for which the pressure difference is to be measured.

Fig. 6 Micromanometer

Before the manometer is connected to the pressure points A and B, both the limbs are subjected to the same pressure. As such the heavier manometric liquid of specific gravity S1 will occupy the level DD’ and the lighter manometric liquid of specific gravity S2 will occupy the level CC’. When the manometer is connected to the pressure points A and B where the pressure intensities are pA and pB respectively, such that pA > pB then the level of the lighter manometric liquid will fall in the left basin and rise in the right basin by the same amount Δy. Similarly the level of the heavier manometric liquid will fall in the left limb to point E and rise in the right limb to point F.

Bourdon Gauge

Where high precision is not required a pressure difference may be indicated by the deformation of an elastic solid. For example, in an engine indicator, the pressure to be measured acts at one side of a small piston, the other side being subject to atmospheric pressure. The difference between these pressures is then indicated by the movement of the piston against the resistance of a calibrated spring. The principle of the aneroid barometer may also be adapted for the measurement of pressures other than atmospheric. A curved tube of elliptical cross-section is closed at one end; this end is free to move, but the other end – through which the fluid enters – is rigidly fixed to the frame as shown in Fig. 5. When the pressure inside the tube exceeds that outside (which is usually atmospheric) the cross-section tends to become circular, thus causing the tube to uncurl slightly.

The movement of the free end of the tube is transmitted by a suitable mechanical linkage to a pointer moving over a scale. Zero reading is obtained when the pressure inside the tube equals the local atmospheric pressure. By using tubes of appropriate stiffness, gauges for a wide range of pressures may be made. If, a pressure higher than the intended maximum is applied to the tube, even only momentarily, the tube may be strained beyond its elastic limit and the calibration invalidated. All gauges depending on the elastic properties of a solid require calibration. For small pressures this may be done by using a column of mercury; for higher pressures the standard, calibrating, pressure is produced by weights of known magnitude exerting a downward force on a piston of known area.

Fig. 6 Bourdon Gauge

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Variation of Pressure in a Fluid

Consider a small fluid element of size δx × δy × δz at any point in a static mass of fluid as shown in Fig.1. Since the fluid is at rest, the element is in equilibrium under the various forces acting on it. The forces acting on the element are the pressure forces on its faces and the self-weight of the element.

Let ‘p’ be the pressure intensity at the midpoint O of the element. Then the pressure intensity on the left hand face of the element is

The pressure intensity on the right hand face of the element is 

The corresponding pressure forces on the left hand and the right hand faces of the element are

 and

 respectively.

Fig. 1 Fluid Element with Forces Acting on it in a Static Mass of Fluid

Likewise the pressure intensities and the corresponding pressure forces on the other faces of the element may be obtained as shown in Fig. 1. Further if ‘w’ is the specific weight of the fluid then the weight of the element acting vertically downwards is (w δx δy δz). Since the element is in equilibrium under these forces, the algebraic sum of the forces acting on it in any direction must be zero. Thus considering the forces acting on the element along x,y and z axes the following equations are obtained

                                 ΣFx = 0

                        or                                                     ΣFy = 0

                               or                                               ΣFz = 0

Equations 1, 2 and 3 indicate that the pressure intensity p at any point in a static mass of fluid does not vary in x and y directions and it varies only in z direction. Hence the partial derivative in eq. 3 may be reduced to total (or exact) derivative as follows.

In vector notation Eq. 4 may be expressed as

– grad p = wk = ρgk

where ‘k’ is unit vector parallel to z axis.

The minus sign (–) in the above equation signifies that the pressure decreases in the direction in which z increases i.e., in the upward direction.

Equation 4 is the basic differential equation representing the variation of pressure in a fluid at rest, which holds for both compressible and incompressible fluids. Equation 4 indicates that within a body of fluid at rest the pressure increases in the downward direction at the rate equivalent to the specific weight ‘w’ of the liquid. Further if dz = 0, then dp is also equal to zero; which means that the pressure remains constant over any horizontal plane in a fluid.

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Road Margins

The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be generally called road margin. Various elements that form the road margins are given below.

1) Shoulders

Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base and surface courses. The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 4.6 m for the shoulders. A minimum width of 2.5 m is recommended for 2- lane rural highways in India.

2) Parking Lanes

Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.

3) Bus-bays

Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are provided so that they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the carriage way. They should be at least 75 meters away from the intersection so that the traffic near the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.

4) Service Roads

Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways like freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a separator and access to the highway will be provided only at selected points. These roads are provided to avoid congestion in the expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those lanes is not reduced.

5) Cycle Track

Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high. Minimum width of 2 m is required, which may be increased by 1 m for every additional track.

6) Footpath

Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and vehicular traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 m and may be increased based on the traffic. The footpath should be either as smooth as the pavement or smoother than that to induce the pedestrian to use the footpath.

7) Guard rails

They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the embankment, especially when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m. Various designs of guard rails are there. Guard stones painted in alternate black and white are usually used. They also give better visibility of curves at night under headlights of vehicles.

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Kerbs in Pavement

Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths. The different types of kerbs are given below.

1) Low or Mountable Kerbs

This type of kerb is provided such that they encourage the traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty. These kerbs are indicator between the boundary of a road and shoulder. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge with a slope which allows the vehicle to climb easily. This is usually provided at medians and channelization schemes and also helps in longitudinal drainage.

Fig. 1 Low or Mountable Kerb

2) Semi-Barrier Type Kerbs

When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty.

Fig. 2 Semi-Barrier Type Kerb

3) Barrier Type Kerbs

They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement. They are provided when there is considerable amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a steep batter. Generally, its height is 23 to 45cm and such kerbs are provided on hills, bridges etc.

Fig. 3 Barrier Type Kerb

4) Submerged Kerbs

They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at pavement edges between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide lateral confinement and stability to the pavement.

Fig. 4 Submerged Kerb 

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Width of Carriage Way, Width of Formation and Right of Way

Width of Carriage Way

Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating speed and safety. The maximum permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 m and the desirable side clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68 m. This require minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single lane road (Fig.1). However, the side clearance required is about 0.53 m, on either side and 1.06 m in the center. Therefore, a two lane road require minimum of 3.5 meter for each lane (Fig.1). The desirable carriage way width recommended by IRC is given in Table 1.

Fig. 1 Lane Width of Single and Two Lane Roads

Table 1 IRC Specification for Carriage Way Width

Type of Carriage Way	Width (m)
Single lane	3.75
Two lane, no kerbs	7.0
Two lane, raised kerbs	7.5
Intermediate carriage	5.5
Multi-lane	3.5

Fig. 2 Representation of Various Road Width

Width of Formation/Roadway Width

Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or carriage way including separators and shoulders. This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting. The values suggested by IRC are given in Table 2.

Table 2 Width of Formation of Various Classification of Roads

Road Classification	Roadway width in m
	Plain and Rolling Terrain	Mountainous and Steep Terrain
NH/SH	12	6.25 - 8.8
MDR	9	4.75
ODR	7.5 - 9.0	4.75
VR	7.5	4.0

Right of Way/ Land Width

Right of way (RoW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon development along highways, control lines and building lines may be provided. Control line is a line which represents the nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a road. Building line represents a line on either side of the road, between which and the road no building activity is permitted at all. The right of way width is governed by:

• Width of formation : It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and road margins.
• Height of embankment or depth of cutting : It is governed by the topography and the vertical alignment.
• Side slopes of embankment or cutting : It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.
• Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.
• Sight distance considerations : On curves etc. there is restriction to the visibility on the inner side of the curve due to the presence of some obstructions like building structures etc.
• Reserve land for future widening : Some land has to be acquired in advance anticipating future developments like widening of the road.

The importance of reserved land is emphasized by the following. Extra width of land is available for the construction of roadside facilities. Land acquisition is not possible later, because the land may be occupied for various other purposes (buildings, business etc.) The normal RoW requirements for built up and open areas as specified by IRC is given in Table 3.

Table 3 Normal Right of Way for Open Areas

Road Classification	Roadway width in m
	Plain and Rolling Terrain	Mountainous and Steep Terrain
Open Areas
NH/SH	45	24
MDR	25	18
ODR	15	15
VR	12	9
Built-up Areas
NH/SH	30	20
MDR	20	15
ODR	15	12
VR	10	9

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