Percapita Demand (q) and Coincident Draft

It is the annual average amount of daily water required by one person and it includes the domestic use, industrial and commercial use, public use, wastes, thefts etc.

Mathematically;

A city’s total annual water demand can be calculated using the above formula if the per capita demand is known or assumed. Per capita demand depends on a variety of factors and varies with consumer’s living conditions and the size and type of industries that have developed or may be developed in the region. For an average Indian city, as recommended by I.S. 1172-1983, per capita demand (q) can be assumed as in the following table.

Table 1 Rate of Demand for Various Uses

Sl. No.	Type of Use	Rate of Demand in lpcd (Litre per Capita per Day)
1	Domestic Use	200
2	Industrial Use	50
3	Commercial Use	20
4	Civil or Public Use	10
5	Waste and Theft, etc.	55
	Total	335

(As per IS 1172-1983, the domestic consumption in India accounts for 135 lpcd (liters/capita/day) without full flushing system. The value is 200 lpcd with full flushing system as indicated in the Table 1.) 

Multiplying this value of 335 liters/person/day by the projected population at the end of the planning period gives the city’s annual average daily water demand. Multiply this by 365 to get your annual water requirement in liters.

Factors Affecting Water Demand or Percapita Demand 

The average annual water demand (per capita demand) varies greatly from city to city. It is generally 100-360 liters/person/day by Indian standards. These variations in total water use in different cities and communities depend on a variety of factors that need to be thoroughly investigated and analyzed before determining the per capita requirements for planning and design purposes. Total water demand is affected by following factors.

1) Size of the City 

Demand increases with size of city. Larger cities generally have a higher per capita demand than smaller cities. Large cities require large amounts of water to maintain a clean and healthy environment. Similarly, large cities generally require more commercial and industrial activity and require more water. The wealthy living in air-cooled homes can also increase city water use.

The population indirectly affects the size of a city. Because even small cities can have high water consumption if they are fully industrialized or have industries that require huge amounts of water or are inhabited by wealthy people. On average, the per capita demand in Indian cities varies by population, as shown in the table below.

Table 2 Variation in Per Capita Demand (q) with population in India

Sl. No.	Population	Per Capita Demand in lpcd (Litre per Capita per Day)
1	Less than 20,000	110
2	20,000 - 50,000	110 - 150
3	50,000 - 200,000	150 - 240
4	200,000 - 500,000	240 - 275
5	500,000 - 1,000,000	275 - 335
6	Over 1,000,000	335 - 350

2) Climatic Conditions

At hotter and dry places, the consumption of water is generally more, because more of bathing, clearing, air-coolers, air-conditioning, lawns, gardens, roofs etc. are involved. Similarly, in extremely cold countries, more water may be consumed, because the people may keep their taps open to avoid freezing of pipes and there may be more leakage from pipe joints since metals contract with cold.

3) Types of Gentry and Habits of People

Rich and upper class communities generally consume more water due to their affluent living standards. Middle-class communities consume average amounts of water, while poor slum-dwellers consume very little. Thus, water consumption is directly dependent on the consumer’s economic status.

4) Industrial and Commercial Activities

The pressure of industrial and commercial activities at a particular place increase the water consumption by large amount. Many industries require very large amounts of water (much more than households need), which greatly increases the demand for water. As mentioned earlier, the demand for industrial water is not directly related to population or city size, but generally, there is more industries in big cities, increasing the per capita demand in big cities. However, for well-planned and zoned cities, estimating industrial and commercial needs separately can help to predict water needs more accurately.

5) Quality of Water Supplies

If the quality and taste of the supplied water is good, it will be consumed more, because in that case, people will not use other sources such as private wells, hand pumps etc. Similarly, certain industries such as boiler feeds etc., which require standard quality waters will not develop their own supplies and will use public supplies, provided the supplied water is up to their required standards.

6) Pressure in the Distribution Systems

If the pressure in the distribution pipes is high and sufficient to make the water reach at 3^rd or even 4^th storage, water consumption shall be definitely more. This water consumption increases because of two reasons.

• People living in upper storage will use water freely as compared to the case when water is available scarcely to them.
• The losses and waste due to leakage are considerably increased if their pressure is high. For example, if the pressure increase from 20 m head of water (i.e. 200 kN/m²) to 30 m head of water (i.e. 300 kN/m²), the losses may go up by 20 to 30 percent.

7) Development of Sewerage Facilities

The water consumption will be more, if the city is provided with ‘flush system’ and shall be less if the old ‘conservation system’ of latrines is adopted.

8) System of Supply

Water may be supplied either continuously for all 24 hours of the day or may be supplied only for peak period during morning and evening. The second system, i.e. intermittent supplies, may lead to some saving in water consumption due to losses occurring for lesser time and a more vigilant use of water by the consumers. 

Water may be supplied continuously for 24 hours a day or only during morning and evening peak hours. Supplying the water only during the peak hour (morning and evening) can lead to saving in water consumption due to losses occurring in a shorter time and consumers paying more attention to their water consumption. However, in many locations, intermittent delivery fails to provide greater savings than continuous delivery for the following reasons. 

• In intermittent supply systems, water is generally stored by the consumer in tanks, barrels, utensils, etc. for the time it is not being supplied. This water, even if not used, is discarded when fresh supplies are restored. This greatly increases rejections and losses. 
• People usually tend to leave the faucet open during off-hours so that they know when the supply is restored which leads to waste.

9) Cost of Water

If the water rates are high, lesser quantity may be consumed by the people. This may not lead to large savings as the affluent and rich people are little affected by such policies.

10) Policy of Metering and Method of Charging

When the supplies are metered, people use only that much of water as much is required by them. Although metered supplies are preferred because of lesser wastage, they generally lead to lesser water consumption by poor and low income group, leading to unhygienic conditions. Water tax is generally charged in two different ways. 

• On the basis of meter reading (meters fitted at the head of the individual house connections and recording the volume of water consumed). 
• On the basis of a certain fixed monthly flat rate. 

In the second case, i.e. when the delivery is not counted and the fee is fixed, people think that they only need to pay a fixed amount regardless of how much water they use, so generally doesn’t save water. Therefore, they generally consume water and on multiple occasions, their taps are left unclosed. All this leads to a lot of waste and a lot of water consumption. Moreover, meters put unnecessary hindrances to the flow, resulting in loss of pressure and increased cost of pumping. Meters are also liable to be stolen and the cost of installing, repairing and reading the meters is generally high. 

Factors Affecting Losses and Waste 

The various factors on which losses depend and the measure to control them are given below. 

• Water tight joints 
• System of supply 
• Unauthorized connections

Fluctuations in Rate of Demand

Average Daily Per Capita Demand (q)

If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the fluctuations. The variations in water demand is listed below.

1) Seasonal Variation

The demand peaks during summer. Fire breakouts are generally more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.

2) Daily Variation

It depends on the activity. People draw out more water on Sundays and Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.

3) Hourly variations

These are very important as they have a wide range. During active household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement is negligible. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly supply.

Fig. 1 Variation of Water Demand with respect to Time

So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand. To meet all the fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly proportioned. The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system must be designed to meet the peak demand. The effect of monthly variation influences the design of storage reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design of pumps and service reservoirs. As the population decreases, the fluctuation rate increases.

Variation in Demand 

Smaller towns have more variation in the demand. The shorter the period of draft, the greater is the departure from the mean. 

(A) Maximum Daily Consumption 

                                  Maximum daily consumption = 1.8 x Avg. daily consumption 

                                                                                                 =1.8 q 

(B) Maximum hourly Consumption  

This is taken as 150% of its average. 

Maximum hourly consumption of maximum daily Peak Demand 

                                                                                  = 1.5 x Maximum daily consumption

Coincident Draft 

For general community purposes, the total draft is not taken as the sum of maximum hourly demand and fire-demand, but is taken as sum of maximum daily demand and fire demand or the maximum hourly demand, whichever is more. The maximum daily demand when added to the fire demand is known as the ‘Coincident Draft’.

Example Question

A water supply scheme has to be designed for a city having a population of 1,00,000. Estimate the important kinds of drafts which may be required to be recorded for an average water consumption of 250 lpcd. Also record the required capacities of the major components of the proposed water works system for the city using a river as the source of supply. Assume suitable data.

Solution

(i) Average daily draft

(per capita average consumption in litre/person/day) x population

                                 Average daily draft = 250 x 1,00,000 litres/day

                                                                         = 250 x 10⁵ litres/day

                                                                         = 25 MLD

(ii) Maximum daily draft 

It maybe assumed as 180% of annual average daily draft

                            

                                                                                           = 45 MLD

(iii) Maximum hourly draft of the maximum day

It may be assumed as 270 percent of annual average

                                                                                                                             = 67.5 MLD

(iv) Fire flow may be worked out from

                                                                              = 41733 litre/min

where P = population in thousands

                                                                                     = 61 MLD

              Coincident draft = maximum daily draft +fire draft

                                                 = 45 +61

                                                 =106 MLD

which is greater than the maximum hourly draft of 67.5 MLD

Hence ok.

Read More

Composition and Resolution of Vectors

The process of finding a single vector which will have the same effect as a set of vectors acting on a body is known as composition of vectors. The resolution of vectors is exactly the opposite process of composition i.e., it is the process of finding two or more vectors which will have the same effect as that of a single vector acting on the body.

Parallelogram Law of Vectors

The parallelogram law of vectors enables us to determine the single vector called resultant vector which can replace the two vectors acting at a point with the same effect as that of the two vectors. This law was formulated based on experimental results on a body subjected to two forces. This law can be applied not only to the forces but to any two vectors like velocities, acceleration, momentum etc.

This law states that ‘if two forces (vectors) acting simultaneously on a body at a point are represented in magnitude and directions by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which passes thorough the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces (vectors)’.

Fig.1 Representation of Parallelogram Law of Vectors

In the Fig. 1, the force F1 = 4 units and the force F2 = 3 units are acting on a body at a point A. To get the resultant of these forces, according to this law, construct the parallelogram ABCD such that AB is equal to 4 units to the linear scale and AC is equal to 3 units. Then according to this law, the diagonal AD represents the resultant in magnitude and direction. Thus the resultant of the forces F1 and F2 is equal to the units corresponding to AD in the direction α to F1.

Triangle Law of Vectors

Referring to Fig. 1. (b), it can be observed that the resultant AD may be obtained by constructing the triangle ABD. Line AB is drawn to represent F1 and BD to represent F2. Then AD should represent the resultant of F1 and F2.

Thus we have derived the triangle law of forces from the fundamental law of parallelogram. The Triangle Law of Forces (vectors) may be stated as ‘if two forces (vectors) acting on a body are represented one after another by the sides of a triangle, their resultant is represented by the closing side of the triangle taken from the first point to the last point.’

Polygon Law of Forces (Vectors)

If more than two forces (vectors) are acting on a body, two forces (vectors) at a line can be combined by the triangle law and finally resultant of all forces (vectors) acting on the body may be obtained.

Fig. 2 Representation of Polygon Law of Vectors

A system of four concurrent forces acting on a body are shown in Fig. 2. AB represents F1 and BC represent F2. Hence according to triangle law of forces AC represents the resultant of F1and F2, say R1. If CD is drawn to represent F3, then from the triangle law of forces AD represents the resultant of R1 and F3. In other words, AD represents the resultant of F1, F2 and F3. Let it be called as R2.

Similarly, the logic can be extended to conclude that AE represents the resultant of F1, F2, F3 and F4. The resultant R is represented by the closing line of the polygon ABCDE in the direction from A to E. Thus we have derived the polygon law of the forces (vectors) and it may be stated as ‘if a number of concurrent forces (vectors) acting simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon, taken in an order, then the resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon, taken from the first point to the last point’.

Graphical (Vector) Method for the Resultant Force

It is another name for finding out the magnitude and direction of the resultant force by the polygon law of forces. It is done as discussed below.

1) Construction of space diagram (position diagram)

It means the construction of a diagram showing the various forces (or loads) along with their magnitude and lines of action.

2) Use of Bow’s notations

All the forces in the space diagram are named by using the Bow’s notations. It is a convenient method in which every force (or load) is named by two capital letters, placed on its either side in the space diagram.

Fig. 3 Denoting a Force by Bow’s Notation

3) Construction of vector diagram (force diagram)

It means the construction of a diagram starting from a convenient point and then go on adding all the forces by vector addition one by one (keeping in view the directions of the forces) to some suitable scale. Now the closing side of the polygon, taken in opposite order, will give the magnitude of the resultant force (to the scale) and its direction.

Read More

Basic Laws of Engineering Mechanics

The structure of engineering mechanics rests on relatively few basic laws. They are given below.

1) Newton’s Laws of Motion

2) Newton’s Law of Gravitation

3) Principle of Transmissibility of Forces

4) Parallelogram Law of Forces

5) Principles of Physical Independence of Forces

6) Principles of Superposition

1) Newton’s Laws of Motion

i) Newton’s First Law of Motion

Newton’s first law states that ‘everybody continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by an external agency acting on it’. This leads to the definition of force as ‘force is an external agency which changes or tends to change the state of rest or uniform linear motion of the body’.

ii) Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Magnitude of force is defined by Newton’s second law. It states that ‘the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the impressed force and it takes place in the direction of the force acting on it’. As the rate of change of velocity is acceleration and the product of mass and velocity is momentum we can derive expression for the force as given below.

From Newton’s second law of motion,

                                            Force ∝ rate of change of momentum

                                            Force ∝ rate of change of (mass × velocity)

Since mass do not change,

                                           Force ∝ mass × rate of change of velocity

                                                      ∝ mass × acceleration

                                                   F ∝ m × a

                                                   F = k × m × a

where 'F' is the force, 'm' is the mass, 'a' is the acceleration and 'k' is the constant of proportionality.

In all the systems, unit of force is so selected that the constant of the proportionality becomes unity. For example, in S.I. system, unit of force is Newton, which is defined as the force that is required to move one kilogram (kg) mass at an acceleration of 1 m/sec².

                                 ∴ One newton = 1 kg mass × 1 m/sec²

   Thus k = 1

                                                     F = m × a

ii) Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Newton’s first law gave definition of the force and second law gave basis for quantifying the force. Newton’s third law states that ‘for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction’.

Consider the two bodies in contact with each other. Let one body apply a force F on another. According to this law the second body develops a reactive force R which is equal in magnitude to force F and acts in the line same as F but in the opposite direction. Fig.1 shows the action of a ball on the floor and the reaction of floor to this action. In Fig. 2 the action of a ladder on the wall and the floor and the reactions from the wall and the floor are shown.

Fig. 1 Action of a Ball on the Floor and the Reaction of Floor

Fig. 2 Action of a Ladder on the Wall and the Floor and the Reactions from the Wall and the Floor

2) Newton’s Law of Gravitation

It states that everybody attracts the other body. ‘The force of attraction between any two bodies is directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them’. Thus the force of attraction between the bodies of mass m1 and mass m2 at distance ‘d’ between them as shown in Fig. 3 is

where G is the constant of proportionality and is known as constant of gravitation.

Fig. 3 Force of Attraction between Two Bodies

From above equation,

It has been proved by experiments that the value of G = 6.673 × 10^–11 Nm²/kg². Thus if two bodies one of mass 10 kg and the other of 5 kg are at a distance of 1 m, they exert a force 

on each other.

Similarly, 1 kg-mass on earth surface experiences a force of

Since, mass of earth = 5.96504 × 10²⁴ kg and radius of earth = 6371 × 10³ m. This force of attraction is always directed towards the centre of earth. In common usage the force exerted by earth on a body is known as weight of the body. Thus weight of 1 kg-mass on/near earth surface is 9.80665 N, which is approximated as 9.81 N for all practical problems. Compared to this force the force exerted by two bodies on each other is negligible. Thus in statics

• Weight of a body W = mg
• Its direction is towards the centre of the earth, in other words, vertically downward. 
• The force of attraction between the other two objects on the earth is negligible.

3) Principle of Transmissibility of Forces

According to this law ‘the state of rest or motion of the rigid body is unaltered, if a force acting on the body is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but acting anywhere on the body along the line of action of the replaced force’.

Let F be the force acting on a rigid body at point A as shown in Fig. 4. According to this law, this force has the same effect on the state of body as the force F applied at point B, where AB is in the line of force F.

Fig. 4 Representation of Principle of Transmissibility of Forces

In using law of transmissibility it should be carefully noted that it is applicable only if the body can be treated as rigid. Hence if we are interested in the study of internal forces developed in a body, the deformation of body is to be considered and hence this law cannot be applied in such studies.

3) Parallelogram Law of Forces

The parallelogram law of forces enables us to determine the single force called resultant force which can replace the two forces acting at a point with the same effect as that of the two forces. This law was formulated based on experimental results on a body subjected to two forces. This law can be applied not only to the forces but to any two vectors like velocities, acceleration, momentum etc. 

This law states that ‘if two forces (vectors) acting simultaneously on a body at a point are represented in magnitude and directions by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which passes thorough the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces (vectors)’.

Fig. 5 Representation of Parallelogram Law of Forces

In the Fig. 5, the force F1 = 4 units and the force F2 = 3 units are acting on a body at a point A. To get the resultant of these forces, according to this law, construct the parallelogram ABCD such that AB is equal to 4 units to the linear scale and AC is equal to 3 units. Then according to this law, the diagonal AD represents the resultant in magnitude and direction. Thus the resultant of the forces F1 and F2 is equal to the units corresponding to AD in the direction α to F1.

4) Principles of Physical Independence of Forces

It states that the action of a force on a body is not affected by the action of any other force on the body.

5) Principles of Superposition of Forces

It states that ‘the net effect of a system of forces on a body is same as the combined of individual forces acting on the body’. Since a system of forces in equilibrium do not have any effect on a rigid body this principle is stated in the following form also: ‘The effect of a given system of forces on a rigid body is not changed by adding or subtracting another system of forces in equilibrium.’

Fig. 6 Representation of Principle of Superposition of Forces

Read More

Scalar and Vector Quantities

Scalar Quantities

The scalar quantities (or sometimes known as scalars) are those quantities which have magnitude only such as length, mass, time, distance, volume, density, temperature, speed, energy work etc.

Vector Quantities

The vector quantities (or sometimes known as vectors) are those quantities which have both magnitude and direction such as force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum etc. Following are the important features of vector quantities.

Representation of a Vector

A vector is represented by a directed line as shown in Fig. 1. It may be noted that the length OA represents the magnitude of the vector OA. The direction of the vector OA is from O (i.e., starting point) to A (i.e., end point). It is also known as vector P.

Fig. 1 Vector OA

Unit Vector

A vector, whose magnitude is unity, is known as unit vector.

Equal Vectors

The vectors, which are parallel to each other and have same direction (i.e., same sense) and equal magnitude are known as equal vectors.

Like Vectors

The vectors, which are parallel to each other and have same sense but unequal magnitude, are known as like vectors.

Addition of Vectors

Consider two vectors PQ and RS, which are required to be added as shown in Fig. 2 (a). Take a point A and draw line AB parallel and equal in magnitude to the vector PQ to some convenient scale. Through B, draw BC parallel and equal to vector RS to the same scale. Join AC which will give the required sum of vectors PQ and RS as shown in Fig. 2 (b).

Fig. 2 Method of Addition of Vectors

This method of adding the two vectors is called the Triangle Law of Addition of Vectors. Similarly, if more than two vectors are to be added, the same may be done first by adding the two vectors, and then by adding the third vector to the resultant of the first two and so on. This method of adding more than two vectors is called Polygon Law of Addition of Vectors.

Subtraction of Vectors

Consider two vectors PQ and RS in which the vector RS is required to be subtracted as shown in Fig. 3 (a). Take a point A, and draw line AB parallel and equal in magnitude to the vector PQ to some convenient scale. Through B, draw BC parallel and equal to the vector RS, but in opposite direction, to that of the vector RS to the same scale. Join AC, which will give the resultant when the vector PQ is subtracted from vector RS as shown in Fig. 3 (b).

Fig. 3 Method of Subtraction of Vectors

Read More

Set Squares

The set squares are triangular in shape with one of the angle as right angle and made of wood, tin, celluloid or plastic. Set squares made of transparent celluloid are the most satisfactory ones as the lines underneath them can be seen quite easily. Set squares of different sizes are available in the market. Set squares are used for drawing all straight lines except the horizontal lines which are drawn with T-square or mini drafter. Generally, two types of set squares are in use. They are:

(i) Thirty-Sixty degree (30⁰-60⁰) set square and

(ii) Forty-five degrees (45⁰) set square

The 30⁰-60⁰ set square of 250 mm length has three angles with the measures of 30⁰, 60⁰ and 90⁰ respectively. Similarly, the 45⁰ set square of 200 mm length has three angles with the measures of 45⁰ and 90⁰ respectively. Those made of transparent celluloid or plastic are commonly used as they retain their shape and accuracy for a longer time. Set squares sometimes lose their accuracy due to internal strains. So they should be tested periodically. Sometimes set squares have French curves.

Fig. 1 45⁰ Set Square

Fig. 2 30°-60° Set Square

Uses

i) Set-squares are used for drawing all straight lines except the horizontal lines which are usually drawn with the T-square. Vertical lines can be drawn with the T-square and the set-square.

ii) In combination with the T-square, lines at 30° or 60° angle with vertical or horizontal lines can be drawn with 30°- 60° set-square and 45° angle with 45° set-square. The two set-squares used simultaneously along with the T-square will produce lines making angles of 15°, 75°, 105° etc. as shown in Fig. 3 and 4. In general, set-squares are used to draw angles of 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°, 90°, i.e, any multiples of 15°.

Fig. 3 Drawing lines at 30°, 60° and 90°

Fig. 4 Drawing lines at 15°, 75° and 105°

iii) Parallel straight lines in any position, not very far apart, as well as lines perpendicular to any line from any given point within or outside it, can also be drawn with the two set-squares.

iv) A circle can be divided in six, eight, twelve and twenty-four equal parts by using set-squares and T-square.

Read More

T- square

 A T-square is made up of hard quality wood such as teak or mahogany, etc. It consists of two parts - the stock and the blade - joined together at right angles to each other by means of screws and pins. T- square is used with its head against the ebony edge of the drawing board to draw horizontal lines, parallel lines and to guide/hold the setsquares, stencils etc. The stock is placed adjoining the working edge of the board and is made to slide on it as and when required. The blade is fitted with an ebony or plastic piece to form working edge of T-square. The blade lies on the surface of the board. Its distant edge which is generally beveled, is used as the working edge and hence, it should be perfectly straight. The nearer edge of the blade is never used. The length of the blade is selected so as to suit the size of the drawing board. Now-a-days T- square is also available of celluloid or plastic with engraved scale.

Fig. 1 T- square

Uses

1) The T-square is used for drawing horizontal lines. The stock of the T-square is held firmly with the left hand against the working edge of the board and the line is drawn from left to right as shown in Fig. 2. The pencil should be held slightly inclined in the direction of the line (i.e. to the right) while the pencil point should be as close as possible to the working edge of the blade. Horizontal parallel fines are drawn by sliding the stock to the desired positions. 

Fig. 2 Drawing using T-square

2) The working edge of the T-square is also used as a base for set-squares to draw vertical, inclined or mutually parallel lines. A pencil must be rotated while drawing lines for uniform wear of lead. The T-square should never be used on edge other than the working edge of the board. It should always be kept on the board even when not in use.

Testing the straightness of the working edge of the T-square

Mark any two points A and B (Fig. 3) spaced wide apart and through them, carefully draw a line with the working edge. Turn the T-square upside down as shown by dashed lines and with the same edge, draw another line passing through the same two points. If the edge is defective the lines will not coincide. The error should be rectified by planning or sand papering the defective edge. 

Fig. 3 Testing the straightness of the working edge of the T-square

T-square should never be used as a hammer or as guide for trimming papers. T-Square is used as a base for drawing various angles with the help of set squares. The standard ‘T’ square are designated as follows with dimensions shown in mm as per IS:1360-1989.

Table 1 Designation of T-square

Sl. No.	Designation of T-square	Blade length (mm)	To be used with Drawing Board
1	T0	1500 ± 10 mm	D0
2	T1	1000 ± 10 mm	D1
3	T2	700 ± 5 mm	D2
4	T3	500 ± 5 mm	D3

Read More

General Types of Soils

Soils which are formed by weathering of rocks may remain in position at the place of region. In that case these are ‘Residual Soils’. These may get transported from the place of origin by various agencies such as wind, water, ice, gravity, etc. In this case these are termed ‘‘Transported soil’’.

1) Residual Soil

Residual soils differ very much from transported soils in their characteristics and engineering behaviour. They are relatively shallow in depth. They are characterized by a gradual transition from soil through partially weathered rocks, fractured and fissured rock, to bedrock. The degree of disintegration may vary greatly throughout a residual soil mass and hence, only a gradual transition into rock is to be expected. An important characteristic of these soils is that the sizes of grains are not definite because of the partially disintegrated condition. The grains may break into smaller grains with the application of a little pressure. Generally, the depth of residual soils varies from 5 to 20 m. Residual soils have not received much attention from geotechnical engineers because these are located primarily in undeveloped areas. In some zones in South India, sedimentary soil deposits range from 8 to 15 m in thickness.

The residual soil profile may be divided into three zones: (i) the upper zone in which there is a high degree of weathering and removal of material; (ii) the intermediate zone in which there is some degree of weathering in the top portion and some deposition in the bottom portion; and (iii) the partially weathered zone where there is the transition from the weathered material to the un-weathered parent rock. Residual soils tend to be more abundant in humid and warm zones where conditions are favourable to chemical weathering of rocks and have sufficient vegetation to keep the products of weathering from being easily transported as sediments. The depth of residual soils depends primarily on climatic conditions and the time of exposure. In some areas, this depth might be considerable. In temperate zones residual soils are commonly stiff and stable. An important characteristic of residual soil is that the sizes of grains are indefinite. For example, when a residual sample is sieved, the amount passing any given sieve size depends greatly on the time and energy expended in shaking, because of the partially disintegrated condition.

2) Transported Soils

Transported soils are soils that are found at locations far removed from their place of formation. The transporting agencies of such soils are glaciers, wind and water. Transported soils may also be referred to as ‘Sedimentary’ soils since the sediments, formed by weathering of rocks, will be transported by agencies such as wind and water to places far away from the place of origin and get deposited when favourable conditions like a decrease of velocity occur. A high degree of alteration of particle shape, size and texture as also sorting of the grains occurs during transportation and deposition. A large range of grain sizes and a high degree of smoothness and fineness of individual grains are the typical characteristics of such soils. Transported soils may be further subdivided, depending upon the transporting agency and the place of deposition, as under:

1) Alluvial Soil

Soils transported by rivers and streams. Alluvial soils are the soils which have been transported and subsequently deposited by flowing water. An alluvial fan is formed when the velocity of a soil laden stream suddenly deceases due to abrupt decrease in gradient. Floodplains are formed on the sides of a stream due to overflowing of flood water. A delta is formed just before a stream reaches the standing water of the sea. Alluvial soil deposits are usually stratified because of fluctuations in velocity of flowing water. The average particle size of alluvial deposits decreases with increasing distance from the source of stream. The delta soils are soil deposits farthest from the source of a stream and usually consist of silt and clay.

Example: Sedimentary clays

2) Aeolian Soil

Soils transported by wind.

Example: loess

3) Glacial Soil

Soils transported by glaciers.

Example: Glacial till

4) Lacustrine Soil

Soils deposited in lake beds.

Example: Lacustrine silts and lacustrine clays

5) Marine Soil

Soils deposited in sea beds.

Example: Marine silts and marine clays

General Types of Soils

The individual size of the constituent parts of even the weathered rock might range from the smallest state (colloidal) to the largest possible size (boulders). This implies that all the weathered constituents of a parent rock cannot be termed soil. According to their grain size, soil particles are classified as cobbles, gravel, sand, silt and clay. Grains having diameters in the range of 4.75 to 76.2 mm are called gravel. If the grains are visible to the naked eye, but are less than about 4.75 mm in size the soil is described as sand. The lower limit of visibility of grains for the naked eyes is about 0.075 mm. Soil grains ranging from 0.075 to 0.002 mm are termed as silt and those that are finer than 0.002 mm as clay. This classification is purely based on size which does not indicate the properties of fine grained materials.

Commonly Used Soil Designations

The following are some commonly used soil designations, their definitions and basic properties.

1) Bentonite

Decomposed volcanic ash containing a high percentage of clay mineral montmorillonite. It exhibits the properties of clay to an extreme degree such as high degree of shrinkage and swelling.

2) Black Cotton Soil

Black soil containing a high percentage of montmorillonite and colloidal material and it exhibits high degree of shrinkage and swelling. The name is derived from the fact that cotton grows well in the black soil.

3) Boulder Clay

Glacial clay containing all sizes of rock fragments from boulders down to finely pulverized clay materials. It is also known as ‘Glacial till’.

4) Caliche

Soil conglomerate of gravel, sand and clay cemented by calcium carbonate.

5) Hard Pan

Densely cemented soil which remains hard when wet. Boulder clays or glacial tills may also be called hard-pan and it is very difficult to penetrate or excavate.

6) Laterite

Deep brown soil of cellular structure, easy to excavate but gets hardened on exposure to air owing to the formation of hydrated iron oxides.

7) Loam

Mixture of sand, silt and clay size particles approximately in equal proportions; sometimes contains organic matter.

8) Loess

Uniform wind-blown yellowish brown silt or silty clay; exhibits cohesion in the dry condition, which is lost on wetting. Loess is a fine-grained, air-borne deposit characterized by a very uniform grain size, and high void ratio. The size of particles ranges between about 0.01 to 0.05 mm. The soil can stand deep vertical cuts because of slight cementation between them. particles It is formed in dry continental regions.

9) Marl

Mixtures of calcareous sands or clays or loam; clay content not more than 75% and lime content not less than 15%.

10) Moorum

Gravel mixed with red clay.

11) Top-soil

Surface material which supports plant life.

12) Varved Clay

Consist of alternating layers of clay and silt of glacial origin, essentially a lacustrine deposit; varve is a term of Swedish origin meaning thin layer. They possess the undesirable properties of both silt and clay.

13) Kaolin, China Clay

They are very pure forms of white clay used in the ceramic industry.

14) Calcareous Soil

It is a soil containing calcium carbonate.

15) Peat

It is a fibrous aggregate of finer fragments of decayed vegetable matter. Peat is very compressible and one should be cautious when using it for supporting foundations of structures.

16) Shale

It is a material in the state of transition from clay to slate. Shale itself is sometimes considered a rock but, when it is exposed to the air or has a chance to take in water it may rapidly decompose.

Organic and Inorganic Soils

Soils in general are further classified as organic or inorganic. Soils of organic origin are chiefly formed either by growth and subsequent decay of plants such as peat or by the accumulation of fragments of the inorganic skeletons or shells of organisms. Hence a soil of organic origin can be either organic or inorganic. The term organic soil ordinarily refers to a transported soil consisting of the products of rock weathering with a more or less conspicuous admixture of decayed vegetable matter. Organic soil contains carbon-based material that is living or was once living. Soil contains many different things that have been deposited over time. Many places around the world do not have adequate soil or soil that needs amendments to become organic and rich. Organic soil also benefits the environment. Non-organic soil media consists of materials that have been manufactured and are free of nutrients and contaminants.

Read More

Stones

A building stone is a piece of rock quarried and worked into a required size and shape for a particular purpose. A building stone may be defined as a sound rock that can be safely used in some situation in the construction as a massive dressed or undressed unit. Granites and marbles used in the form of finely dressed blocks or slabs or columns in monumental and costly buildings, are good building stones. Similarly, sandstones and limestone used in forts, retaining walls and boundary walls and also as blocks in stone houses and bungalows are typical building stones. Slates used in many areas as roofing material for ordinary constructions and in pavements also fall in the category of building stones. The stones are used in the construction of buildings from the ancient times and most of the ancient temples, forts and mosques were built with stones as the major material. At present, they are largely used as the basic material for the manufacturing of the other construction materials like concrete, bricks etc.

Stone masonry is an engineering art that is preserved in many historical buildings in all parts of the world. This skill is still used, though on a lesser scale (because of the advent of concrete) in the construction of common residential houses and palatial buildings in many places. The Taj Mahal at Agra, the Red Fort in Delhi and temples of Lord Jagannath puri are some of the best known stone marvels of India. Following are the various uses to which stones are employed.

1) Structural elements: The stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, roofs, floor, damp proof courses etc.

2) Facing: The stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure. The walls are of bricks and facing is done in stones of desired shades. This is known as the composite masonry.

3) Paving: The stones are used to cover floor of buildings of various types such as residential, commercial, industrial etc. They are also adopted to form paving of roads, footpaths etc.

4) Basic Material: The stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for cement concrete, moorum/murrum of roads, calcareous cements, artificial stones, hollow blocks etc.

5) Miscellaneous uses: In addition to the above uses the stones are also used as:

i) Ballast for railways
ii) Blocks in construction of bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls, light houses, dams etc.

iii) Flux in blast furnaces

Type of Stones

1) Granite

It is a deep seated igneous rock, which is hard, durable and available in various colours. It has a high value of crushing strength and is capable of bearing high weathering. Granite is used for bridge components, retaining walls, stone columns, road metal and ballast for railways, foundation, stone work and for coarse aggregates in concrete. These stones can also be cut into slabs and polished to be used as floor slabs and stone facing slabs. Granite is found in the states of India like Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

The minerals of granite are quartz, feldspar and mica. It has a specific gravity 2.63 to 2.75. They also have light or dark grey, pink or reddish colour. They have a crushing strength of 1000 to 1400 kg/m². It is very strong heavy, hard durable. It contains silica of about 60 to 80%.

2) Sandstone

This stone is form of sedimentary rock formed by the action of mechanical sediments. It has a sandy structure which is low in strength and easy to dress. They are used for ornamental works, paving and as road metal. It is available in the states of India like Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Sandstone is composed of sand grains, cemented together by calcium or magnesium carbonate or silicic acid, alumina and also oxide of iron. It also has a specific gravity 2.25. They have white, grey, brown or red in colour. It has a crushing strength of 400 to 800 kg/m². These are strong under pressure, but it is flaky when it contains mica. They are easily workable and also resists the weathering in a better way.

3) Limestone

It is a sedimentary rock formed by remnants of seaweeds and living organisms consolidated and cemented together. It contains a high percentage of calcium carbonate. Limestone is used for flooring, roofing, pavements and as a base material for cement. It is found in the states of India like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. These are carbonate of lime intermixed with other minerals and impurities such as silica, magnesium carbonate, aluminium and iron. It has yellow, brown, grey or violet colour. It has a specific gravity 2.56. They have crushing strength 300 to 500 kg/m². These are soft and absorbent and so they do not resist the weathering action properly.

4) Slate

These are also composed of silica and alumina. These are usually grey-black or dark blue in colour. It has a specific gravity of 2.8. It has crushing strength 700 to 2100 kg/m². It is a metamorphic rock which can be split easily. It is used for damp-proofing, flooring and roofing.

5) Basalt and Trap

They are originated from igneous rocks in the absence of pressure by the rapid cooling of the magma. They have the same uses as granite. Deccan trap is a popular stone of this group in South India.

6) Gneiss

It can be recognized by its elongated platy minerals usually mixed with mica and used in the same way as granite. They can be used for flooring, pavement and not for major purposes because of its weakness. It is found in the states of India like Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.

7) Marble

It is a metamorphic rock which can be easily cut and carved into different shapes. It is used for ornamental purposes, stone facing slabs, flooring, facing works etc. It is found in the states of India like Rajasthan, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.

8) Quartzite

It is a metamorphic rock which is hard, brittle, crystalline and durable. It is difficult to work with and used in the same way as granite but not recommended for ornamental works as it is brittle.

9) Laterite

It is decomposed from igneous rocks; occur in soft and hard varieties. It contains a high percentage of iron oxide and can be easily cut into blocks. The soft variety is used for walls after curing while the hard blocks are used for paving the pathways.

Read More